Walter Benjamin "Theses on the Philosophy of History"

  Walter Benjamin Archives. Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme,

 History is an important part of our life because, every existence has an origin. Meanwhile, the contemporary issue is the different versions of the same origin. Although, the versions might seem related, but how do we determined the original version? This was as a result of inaccurate data and lack of record keeping as at the time it happened.

The passage i chose is "To articulate the past historically does not mean to recognize it "the way it really was" (Rankle). It means to seize hold of a memory as it flashes up at a moment of danger. Historical materialism wishes to retain that image of the past which unexpectedly appears to man singled out by history at a moment of danger. The danger affects both the content of the tradition and its receivers. The same threat hangs over both: that of becoming a tool of the ruling classes. In every era the attempt must be made anew to wrest tradition away from a conformism that is about to overpower it."
The passage analyze how the ruling class took advantage of uncompleted historical materials and used it to create different version of history in relation to politics, in order to justify their ruling as being the government of the people. Historical materials are not being used to avert the danger of the present, but are being used to suit the present politics.

The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Production

Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical

The work of art has always been crucial to the development and dissemination of information that relates to the concept and history of a particular artistic work. This is an interesting essay by Walter Benjamin, which explained the transformation in artistic production. The technical reproduction of the artistic work which gave rise to painting, lithography, photography and film production.
The passage I chose is;
"An analysis of art in the age of mechanical reproduction must do justice to these relationships, for they lead us to an all-important insight: for the first time in the world history, mechanical reproduction emancipates the work of art from its parasitical dependence on ritual. To an ever greater degree the work of art reproduced becomes the work of art designed for reproducibility.
The passage indicates how the work of art was transformed from ritual art to exhibition art, through the mechanical reproduction. The work of art now become the design for the reproducibility"
 This passage express the growth of art through the mechanical process, which remained an important aspect of the world history concerning the work of art.

1. Cult value is the original value of art work in the form of magic and rituals status. The artistic production base on ceremonial object being use as a cult. While the exhibition value is the production of artistic work by showing the relevant information about a piece of art work.The creation of art through its original form. Benjamin see the value of art as independent in relation to the politics which he says "art for art sake"

2. Erfahrung is a kind of experience called integrated experience, it is the understanding of the historical origin of the artistic object that  we encounter. Its establishes what we called continuity in experience through relativism. Erlebnisse is an experience that is referred to an isolated experience and are usually seen as being unfriendly in nature

3. POSITIVE;The destruction of aura takes away the mystical aspect of art and allow everyone to approach the art in a more realistic way. It also allow everyone to see the universal equality of things and also allow gives room for the mass production of artistic work for the first time.
NEGATIVE; The total function of the artistic work is being reversed an based another practice called politics.

4. The impact of forms of mass culture like films have really changed human perception, the positive destruction of aura which brought the universal equality of things and by also accepting the reproduction of art work.The reproduction of art has brought about pictures, magazines and a form of brief film.     

On Pain

Ernst Juunger

This is an interesting essay wrote by Ernst Junger, pain is inevitable as to my own perspective and we can only master pain rather than to avoid it. Pain is part of our existence, at one point or the other, human being must experience pain in order to shape his or her life.
The passage i chose is;
" Pain's hidden influence also comes to light in the feeling of embitterment. The soul's pain is of an inferior kind, it is among the sickness causing a rejection of sacrifice. Perhaps nothing is therefore more characteristics of the turn of the century than the predominance of psychology as a science.It bears the most intimate relation to pain, as confirmed by its advance into the field of medical science. A sense of deep mistrust also also has its place here: the feeling of being demoralized by malicious ploys, whether in relation to economic, intellectual, moral, or racial matters"
The passage emphasizes on the pain being cause by pain of the soul, the souls of human beings especially women, are so fragile and can hardly withstand pressure due to some emotional problem, this leads to series of pain, which demonizes the soul spiritually. The aftermath of these pain often lead to psychological pain, and this is where Junger says "A sense of deep mistrust also also has its place here: the feeling of being demoralized by malicious ploys, whether in relation to economic, intellectual, moral, or racial matters".

1,  I agree with Ernst Junger's thesis that pain is the central experience in human life . Individual lives engages in series of activities and we tend to stay in contact with pain through experience as we are growing up. " This observation explains why modern sensitivity relates to pain as a power to be avoided at all cost, because here pain confronts the body not as an outpost but as the main force and essential core of life"

2. Post liberal refer to the period of transformation of liberal education into specialized education.The progress refers to the period, where there was an introduction of technologies into the world which helped to transform human being through forms of specialized training.

3. Photography is the "evil eye" according to Junger, because it is a way of expressing our unusual brutality of seeing. " Ultimately, it is a kind of evil eye, a type of magical possession.

4, The "specialize" education and the "worker type" were within the education system and transformation of human life through technology.  The transformation on the part of worker's type was initially felt as a loss and also eliminates sensitivity, while specialization has a form of limited education and more focused.

5. It does protect a man from pain, to some extent, but not total protection where the individual has no other alternative than to remain loyal. Meanwhile, pain is inevitable  

 

NAZISM

This is an historical and interesting blog on the use of power by the Nazis to control the means of production. Nazism as being saw and interpreted by Franz Neumann's Behemoth in 1941."It is the logical consequence of monopoly capitalism". The power of state were being used by the large industries, because the Nazis' government supported them as at that time, to control the production. There were no limitation on the acquisition and accumulation of capital and wealth compare to capitalism which imposed some limitation on the accumulation of wealth.

The passage i chose is "Probably what set Hitler apart from other dangerous was his ability to exert "charismatic authority" (the weberian concept) over his audiences, who saw in him some super natural quality. Hitler was an admirer of Nietsche and thought of himself as the superman creating a new order of values that disposed of the weak notions of human rights and substituted it for philosophy of power legitimated through violence. The combined with claims to speaking for the "real Germans" and promises to "restore German greatness" struck a chord with insecure Germans who felt lost and directionless in heir lives, and all too willing to find scapegoats for their problems. One of the most common claims made by early Hitler supporters was the feeling that "he made me feel like i was not alone anymore"

This passage analyze what we called charismatic authority, which is the authority based on the special personal qualities claimed by an individual, which make the individual attractive to and capable of influencing large number of people. Hitler was able to take advantage of the directionless and lost Germans through the use of the most powerful quality. I like this passage because, having the charismatic quality is very essential in order to speak and influence the large group of people. The Germans saw his quality as a super natural quality and i also like the claim made by one his supporters who said "he made me feel like i was not alone anymore". Hitler's charismatic really worked for him and was able to attract the insecure, lost and directionless Germans.

1.  The Nazi's were able to take advantage of the economic disaster that happened in US in 1929 and later affected German in 1930. Nazi became the second largest party in Reichstag after SPD, and become impossible to form the majority in parliament without them. This is due to the German's voting system that allocated seats in parliament based on the overall percentage of the vote captured.

Hitler's government was granted full dictatorial powers due to fire decree act that was passed in March 1933

2. Nazis were able to control the prices of goods and wages of workers. The independent unions were subdued and replaced it with national union controlled by the Nazis (the German Labor Front).
It was an attractive model for the business executives because, they don't seem to offend the Nazi government because, they follow its instruction and  were left in control. The government also became their biggest customer with an increase in demand for the war production.

3. The significance of the term "Arbeit Macht Frei" The Germans were able to take the advantage of the slaves by using them for the construction of roads and factories and promising them with the term meaning "work makes one free). that means, they are free, if they choose to work.

4. State capitalism is an economic system where the means of productions are privately owned business but government still has moderate control on it. Nazi Germany economic system is a monopolized capitalism; the state dictate and control every means of production through the use of coerce.

5. It was bad idea for them to isolated and confiscated the Jewish property. It finally affected them by having it mind that, they could control Hitler when he got to the power and that was why the old school aristocrats whom were also anti-semitic had to believe in democracy. It would have been better off for the Germans if they had never isolated anyone during their struggling because peace and unity matter most during the cause of struggling.

Politics as a Vocation

 
 THE POLITICS OF GERMANY

This is an interesting and very wide lecture on the concept of politics. There is politics in almost everywhere, and also varies on so many factors such as; culture, education, believe and standard living in a particular country. The politics in some part of the world especially Africa is totally different from those in other continents because it is engrossed with culture, believe and so also religion. It's a cultural and power tussle activities, which results to violence every time during the election.

"To be sure, mere passion, however genuinely felt, is not enough. It does not make a politician, unless passion as devotion to a 'cause' also makes responsibility to this cause the guiding star of action. And for this, a sense of proportion is needed. This is the decisive psychological quality of the politician: his ability to let realities work upon him with inner concentration and calmness. Hence, his distance to things and men. 'Lack of distance' per se is one of the deadly sins of every politician. It is one of those qualities the breeding of which will condemn the progeny of our intellectuals to political incapacity. For the problem is simply how can warm passion and a cool sense of proportion be forged together in one and the same soul? Politics is made with the head, not with other parts of the body or soul. And yet devotion to politics, if it is not to be frivolous intellectual play but rather genuinely human conduct, can be born and nourished from passion alone. However, that firm taming of the soul, which distinguishes the passionate politician and differentiate him from the 'Sterilely excited' and mere political dilettante, is possible only through habituation to detachment in every sense of the world. The 'strength' of a political 'personality' means, in the first place, the possession of these qualities of passion, responsibility and proportion." (Page 26)

I like this paragraph because it emphasizes on possession of the qualities such as passion, responsibility and proportion. Passion is very important towards engaging oneself in career and politics is just like a career, and there a politician must first of all other things develop a sense of passion. Secondly, in every action of the politicians, responsibility must be a guiding tool. They must be aware of their action as a responsibility to serve with integrity. Thirdly, distance,  ability to make their actions become reality without being biased or subjective.
These qualities are what the lecture refer to as the strength of a political personality.   
 

The Weimer Republic (1919 - 1933)

The inscription reads "On 1st November 1923
1 pound of bread cost 3 billion, 1 pound of meat 36 billion 1 glass of beer 4 million

 This is a short representation of German Democratic rule (1919 - 1933), which was categorized into three periods; A period crisis (1919 - 1924), a golden age period (1924 - 1929) and the starting of the Great Depression and the rise of Nazism into power (1929 - 1933). This is the period of Great Depression in 1929, which happened as a result of the collapsed of the United States Stock market. The effects of the depression finally affected Germany in 1930 - 1931 and this led to the events that gave rise to the Nazi party. The Weimer Republic Constitution should have been the best constitution written, if not for the Great Depression that led to the collapsed of the Weimer Republic.

Article 43
"The term of office of the Reich President lasts seven years. Reelection is permitted. The President can be deposed by plebiscite, which has to be suggested by the Reichstag. This Reichtag decision requires a majority of two thirds of the votes. Such a decision bars the Reich President from continued exercise of his office. A rejection of the deposition is regarded as a reelection and results in the dissolution of the Reichstag. The Reigh President can not be persecuted in a penal matter without the approval of Reichstag".
 The president was given the chance to rule for seven years per term, and can still still has the permission to be reelected. The President can also be removed from office by the direct qualified votes of a state in regard to some important public questions.The Reich President can not be persecuted in a matter pertaining to, or involving punishment. I choose this because, the President seems to have some extensive powers of ruling for seven years at one term, and still has the permission to be reelected. This will save time and cost of reelection at every four years.

Article 151
"The economy has to be organized based on the principles of justice, with the goal of achieving life in dignity for everyone. Within these limits the economic liberty of the individual is to be secured. Legal force is permissible to realize threatened rights or in the service of superseding demand of public welfare. Freedom of trade and industry will be realized according to a Reich law"
The economy is being organized for the purpose of benefiting the whole citizens base on the principles of justice. Each and everyone of the citizen will be able to grow independently, for having the economic right.
I choose this because, it specifies the provision of  the economic right for the citizens.

1, What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of proportional representation?
Advantages of Proportional Representation
It reduces wasted votes
It encourages multiple political parties system, where two and political parties participate
It help the minority group to speak out, through the multiple political parties system
Disadvantages of Proportional Representation 
It makes the representatives to be less responsive and less dependent on local voters
The increase in minority voice to have a say in politics, gives Nazis the chance to come to power, despite having 30% of the vote.

2, What were the leading cause of the decline of the Weimer Republic?
The decline of Weimer Republic was as a result of  the event, which led to the development of Nazi party, this is the Great depression that began in US in 1929, and later affected Germany in 1930 - 1931. The Weimer Republic was claimed to have been the most democratic form of government, if not the collapsed.

 3, What is Hyperinflation?
Inflation is a persistent and substantial rise in the general level of prices related to an increase in the volume of money and resulting in the loss of value of currency
HYPERINFLATION and also called galloping inflation; is the type of inflation that is extremely high, usually over 50 cent per month and often involving social disorder in the country.

4, How would you Judge the Weimer Constitution as compared to the American Constitution?
The Weimer Constitution and US constitution outlines the powers and responsibilities of the three arms of government; Legislative, the Executive and the Judiciary. The powers and responsibilities have the same standard form,but in a different order.
The Weimer Constitution has more details of the Legislative and Administrative functions compare to the US Constitution.
The President under the Weimar Republic is granted seven years in the office, compare to the US President which is four years
The Minority rights and other Protections are laid out under the Weimer Republic, and not laid out in the US Constitution.
The Weimer Constitution provides the right to education, and also specifies what the right entails, while the US Constitution does not provide a right to education
The Weimer Constitution provides economic justice know as economic right for every citizen, and which was not stated in the US Constitution.

The German Revolution of 1918 - 1919

The Junius Pamphlet

The Crisis of German Social Democracy

 

This is a good and educative essay, which give the details on Socialism, Capitalism and Nationalism movement, the conflicts in Germany during the First and Second World War and the historical development that led to the Third World War. The passage i chose is " A friend in need is a friend indeed. This old adage has once more proven its soundness. The social democratic proletariat that has been prosecuted and clubbed for its opinions went, like one man, to protect our homes. German labor unions that had so often suffered both in Germany and in Prussia report unanimously that the best of their members have joined the colors. Even the capitalist papers like the General-Anzeiger note the fact and express the conviction that 'these people' will do their duty as well as any man, that blows will rain most heavily where they stand". This passage showed the integration of principle of national unity as being proclaimed by the Social Democratic press and the Capitalist group also accommodate the sense of national unity as one German nation. The passage showed the sense of loyalty to one's nation despite the different in political ideologies. 

1. Why does Luxemburg believe that wars of 1871 affect the wars in 1914?

She believe that, the war of 1871 affect the war of 1914 because, the was two lines of development in history that led to the war of 1914. One is the development, that led to the institution of national states during the time of Bismarckian war against France, and second is the development that led to the unification between French Republic and Russia and which divided Europe into two opposing camps.

2. How does Luxemburg judge the claims made about "Russian despotism" supported by the SPD?

Luxemburg criticized the idea of Russian despotism, she said it will be very dangerous to deport Russians and also wage war against them because, the civilization and independence of German people is of paramount important at that time. "Much, aye everything is at stake for our people and its future, if Russian despotism, stained with the blood of its own people, should be the victor. This danger must be averted, the civilization and the independence of our people must be safeguarded" 

3. What is the relationship between nationalism and capitalism?

Capitalism is an economic system that is characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision, and by prices, production and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly by competition in a free market. 

Nationalism is a loyalty and devotion to a nation. A sense of national consciousness exalting one's nation above all others, and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interest as opposed to those of other nations.

4. Why does Luxemburg believe that the war supports the business interest of steel and the banks?

Luxenburg believe that, the war supports the business interest of steel and the banks because, there was an increase in monopoly power in Europe, and also the strong banking system in the whole world. The monopoly power  was used to organize the steel and iron industry, this power led to the interest in government orders, the production of military equipment, building of railroads and also, to take advantage  of the mines into the most control factor in the country.